Análisis de la ciberviolencia en la pareja desde una perspectiva de géneroConsecuencias para el bienestar de jóvenes

Abstract

ABSTRACT In recent decades, the levels of intimate partner violence (IPV) have exponentially increased, mainly among younger people. Traditional patterns of abuse in intimate relationships are transferring to the online environment by adopting new ways and forms of expression. Although both men and women engage in cyberdating abuse behaviors, how it is perceived and experienced, as well as the motivations and consequences are not the same for both genders. These differences are not surprising, given that the way people think, feel, and act is often biased by gendered social norms. Despite the progress observed in terms of equality, differential gender socialization continues to permeate our society, relegating women to a position of vulnerability that exposes them to multiple forms of violence. The general objective of this doctoral thesis is to clarify the gender asymmetry implicit in cyberdating abuse, focusing on the context in which it takes place (online environment) and on the influence of gender socialization. Specifically, it focuses on examining three fundamental questions: (a) what factors determine the differential way in which young people perceive and experience cyberdating abuse (Objective 1); (b) how do certain variables (individual, relational, and cultural) interact with each other to explain its perpetration, examining possible gender patterns (Objective 2); and (c) what strategies do victims use to cope with cyberabusive behaviors and how does this affect their well-being (Objective 3). Overall, this dissertation consists of a total of five chapters. Chapter 1 offers a synthetic view of the existing literature on cyberdating abuse, where the main theoretical approaches that support the framework of the doctoral thesis are described, as well as the conceptualization, antecedents, and consequences of this problem. Next, the motivations and specific objectives of the thesis are detailed. Chapter 2 includes a series of three studies (Studies 1-3) that, using an experimental methodology, attempt to approximate the variables that promote the justification and normalization of IPV from a gender perspective (Objective 1). Specifically, Studies 1 and 2 (Ntotal = 344) examine how the role that people adopt in a situation of IPV against women (protagonist vs. observer) and the context in which it occurs (face-to-face vs. WhatsApp) affect the perception of violence while analyzing the influence of certain ideological variables (acceptability of IPV against women, ambivalent sexism, and myths about romantic love). The main results showed that in conditions in which women were victims (vs. observers) of a situation of abusive control, they recognized to a lesser degree the risk of IPV (Study 1). On the other hand, it was observed that when they were perpetrators (vs. observers) of such a situation, men recognized to a lesser extent the abuse (control) they exerted toward their partners and tended not to consider the threat to power as the cause of their behavior (Study 2). Likewise, the findings indicated that young men and women with high levels of ambivalent sexism, high acceptability of IPV against women, and high acceptance of romantic love myths showed greater justification of abuse, lower perception of seriousness, and lower identification of IPV (Studies 1 and 2). Delving deeper into experiences of cybervictimization, Study 3 (N = 92) aimed at examining how men and women differentially perceive the cyberabusive behaviors they experience in their relationships in terms of offensiveness and severity and what motivations they attribute to the abuse they are subjected to, depending on whether it is cybercontrol or direct cyberaggression. The results showed that women perceived their partners' cyberabusive behaviors as more severe and offensive than men, mainly, when it was an incident of direct cyberaggression (vs. cybercontrol). Likewise, men (vs. women) reported more frequently that they suffered cyberviolence due to their partners being insecure, distrustful, and emotionally dependent, whereas women (vs. men) indicated to a greater extent that they had been victims of cyberabuse because their partners experienced online disinhibition. Finally, depending on the victim's perspective, direct cyberaggression (vs. cybercontrol) by the partner was motivated more by anger/frustration and online disinhibition, whereas cybercontrol behaviors (vs. direct cyberaggression) were more motivated by certain personality traits (insecurity, distrust, and emotional dependence) and jealousy. Overall, Chapter 2 provides evidence that supports the situation of greater vulnerability to which women are exposed in their relationships. It also shows that the impact of their suffering cyberdating abuse, especially direct cyberaggression, seems to be more negative for women (vs. men). Chapter 3 comprises a series of three studies (Studies 4-6) in which, from a nonexperimental methodology, we seek to understand how certain variables (individual, relational, and contextual) interact with each other to predict the perpetration of cyberdating abuse, examining possible gender patterns. Also, taking into account the distinctive nature and intentionality of cyberabusive behaviors (direct cyberaggression and cybercontrol), this chapter attempts to approach the understanding of the explanatory mechanisms underlying each type of abuse (Objective 2). Specifically, Studies 4 and 5 (Ntotal = 698) examine for the first time (a) the moderating role of gender and heterosexual script acceptance in the positive association between anxious attachment and the perpetration of intimate partner cyberviolence and (b) the indirect effect of anxious attachment on the perpetration of this type of violence through partner electronic surveillance and online jealousy. Results showed that high levels of anxious attachment predicted more frequent perpetration of direct cyberaggression against partners in men (but not in women; Study 4). Furthermore, when the effect of adherence to the heterosexual script was considered, the results indicated that anxious attachment was associated with a higher frequency of direct cyberaggression, mainly in men with high (vs. low) acceptance of the heterosexual script (Study 5). Likewise, the findings indicated that people with a high anxious attachment used social networks to a greater extent to track their partners, which provoked higher levels of online jealousy in them and, consequently, led them to exercise more frequent cybercontrol (but not direct cyberaggression) toward their partners (Study 5). Study 6 (N = 362) is pioneering in testing whether online disinhibition and moral disengagement predict the perpetration of direct cyberaggression toward a partner. Specifically, it examines (a) the indirect effect of online disinhibition on the perpetration of this type of violence through moral disengagement and (b) the influence of gender, ambivalent sexism, and frequency of victimization as moderators of the prior association. Results showed that individuals who experienced high online disinhibition tended to activate moral disengagement to a greater extent, leading them to perpetrate direct cyberaggression against a partner (but not cybercontrol) more frequently. However, the former effect occurred under certain circumstances. Specifically, high levels of online disinhibition were associated with high moral disengagement, primarily in men (vs. women), which, in turn, was related to a higher frequency of direct cyberaggression perpetration only when they, in turn, suffered from high frequency (vs. low frequency) of cyberdating abuse. In sum, Chapter 3 provides novel evidence about the psychosocial mechanisms that might trigger different cyberabusive behaviors (direct cyberaggression and cybercontrol), while glimpsing certain gender asymmetries. Chapter 4 contains two studies (Studies 7 and 8) of a nonexperimental nature that offer an initial approach to understanding cyberdating abuse coping and its consequences from a quantitative methodology (Objective 3). Specifically, Studies 7 and 8 (Ntotal = 618) examine (a) whether cyberdating abuse victimization is associated with lower psychological well-being and lower relationship satisfaction in women (vs. men), and (b) whether the negative impact of victimization on such aspects of well-being is increased through strategies traditionally considered ineffective (exit, loyalty, and neglect). Building on the preliminary findings of Study 7, which indicated that the use of destructive responses (exit and neglect) mediates the effect of victimization on psychological well-being and relationship satisfaction, Study 8 aimed at deepening the understanding of relational factors that might promote the use of these destructive strategies. Specifically, we examined (c) whether low perceived power in the relationship could explain the positive relationship between cyberdating abuse victimization and the use of destructive strategies (exit and neglect), and (d) whether the degree of partner inclusion in the self-concept would moderate the effect of perceived power on exit responses. The results of both studies consistently showed that direct cyberaggression victimization predicted lower relationship satisfaction, primarily, in females (vs. males). Likewise, both studies indicated that individuals who experienced a high frequency of cyberdating abuse (either cybercontrol, direct cyberaggression, or both) were more likely to use destructive responses (leaving and abandonment), which were associated with poorer psychological well-being and lower relationship satisfaction. Delving deeper into this question, highly cybervictimized individuals showed low levels of perceived power in the relationship, which seemed to explain the frequent use of destructive responses (exit and neglect; Study 8). Finally, the results showed that the perception of low power experienced by highly cybervictimized individuals led to the use of exit responses only when they manifested low inclusiveness (vs. high inclusiveness) of the partner in the self-concept (Study 8). Altogether, the results projected in Chapter 4 constitute the first empirical evidence supporting that the coping style may determine the psychosocial adjustment of victims of cyberdating abuse and their satisfaction with the relationship. It also highlights the need to consider other relational factors such as perceived relational power and partner inclusiveness in self-concept when exploring coping responses to cyberdating abuse. Finally, in Chapter 5, the most relevant results and contributions of the dissertation are described, followed by a discussion of the main theoretical and practical implications, as well as possible limitations and future lines of research. Overall, this thesis can provide a broader view of how young women and young men perceive, exercise, and experience cyberdating abuse differently to promote social policies and specific resources for the prevention and effective intervention of this problem from a gender approach. Following the requirements of the International Doctorate of the University of Granada, some sections of this doctoral thesis are described in Spanish, others in English, and others in both languages. In addition, the studies included in the empirical chapters have been written as research articles for subsequent publication in scientific journals. Therefore, some of the information presented throughout the chapters may be redundant.