Eficacia de tres programas de acondicionamiento físico general y cuatro semanas de desentrenamiento sobre la composición corporal, la condición física y valores hematológicos en mujeres mayores de 60 años

Résumé

INTRODUCCIÓN Son muchos y variados los estudios que han investigado sobre los beneficios de la práctica de programas de acondicionamiento físico en mujeres mayores de 60 años. Sin embargo, existen formas de interconexión de cargas de entrenamiento no especificadas que podrían mejorar aspectos de la composición corporal, de la condición física y de los valores hematológicos de nuestros mayores. Uno de los aspectos no estudiados es la realización de una sesión extra con el objetivo de desarrollar fuerza y masa muscular realizado en distintos medios (acuático y sala de fitness) sobre un programa de acondicionamiento físico general (multicomponente), que incluye un trabajo de resistencia aeróbica, fuerza, flexibilidad y coordinación dinámica general de 2 sesiones semanales durante 10 semanas de entrenamiento. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio se centra en comparar los efectos de tres programas. CONTENIDO DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN El diseño de la investigación es de tipo experimental. La muestra estuvo integrada por 45 mujeres (65,67 ± 4.48 años; 75.3 ± 11.06 kg) de la localidad de Madridejos (Toledo) que fueron divididas en cuatro grupos diferentes (grupo control [GC]; grupo de acondicionamiento físico general [GAFG]; grupo de acondicionamiento físico general más sesión de hipertrofia [GAFGH]; grupo de acondicionamiento físico general más sesión en piscina poco profunda [GAFGP]). Las variables dependientes fueron composición corporal, masa muscular, porcentaje de grasa corporal, potencia de los miembros inferiores (ABK y CMJ), fuerza de miembros superiores (test curl de bíceps), fuerza de miembros inferiores (test stand chair), resistencia aeróbica (6 minutos en la prueba de caminata) y las variables sanguíneas (Colesterol, Colesterol LDL, Colesterol HDL, Nivel de Hematocrito, Hemoglobina, Glucosa basal y Hemoglobina Glicosilada (HbA1c)). Se realizaron cuatro mediciones, un pre-test previo a la aplicación de los programas de entrenamiento y tres post-test (dos días después de haber finalizado el entrenamiento, dos semanas después de haber finalizado el entrenamiento, cuatro semanas después de haber finalizado el entrenamiento). La intervención tuvo una duración de 10 semanas. Los resultados muestran que tras la aplicación de los tres programas de acondicionamiento físico se observaron mejoras significativas en las pruebas que medían la potencia de miembros inferiores en un Abalakov (GAFGH: 19,58%) o en un CMJ (GAFGP: 14,77%), la fuerza de los miembros superiores (GAFGH: 22,01%; GAFGH: 17,12%; GAFG: 13,26%), la fuerza de los miembros inferiores (GAFGH: 10,25%; GAFG: 7,77%) y variables hematológicas como el colesterol LDL (GAFGH: -3,90%), colesterol HDL (GAFG: 5,28%), glucosa basal (GAFGH: -7,73%) y hemoglobina glicosilada (GAFGH: 2,51%; GAFG: 2,20%) . En el GC se observaron pérdidas significativas de masa muscular tras entrenamiento (5,61%) y desentrenamiento (4,92%), incrementos muy significativos de colesterol total (6,69%) y significativo de la Hemoglobina glicosilada (2,92%). Con el desentrenamiento se observaron diferencias significativas entre GC y GAFG en masa muscular (p:0,014); el GAFGH mantuvo e incrementó con respecto al nivel inicial las diferencias significativas en salto Abalakov (p2: 0,001; p3:0,046); en el CMJ por su parte, se observaron diferencias significativas con respecto a los niveles iniciales en los grupos GAFGH y GAFGP, con diferencias significativas entre GAFGP y GC (p:0,013); también se mantuvieron las mejoras e incluso incrementaron en la prueba curl de bíceps con diferencias muy significativas tras 14 semanas entre GAFG y GC (p:0,004) y también diferencias muy significativas entre el GAFGH y GC (p:0,002); en la prueba de resistencia cardiovascular se observaron diferencias muy significativas tras 14 semanas entre GC y GAFG (p:0,000) y entre GC y GAFGH (p:0,009). No hubo mejoras significativas en los datos de composición corporal (peso y porcentaje de grasa) y en ciertos valores hematológicos (hemoglobina y hematocrito), ni diferencias entre los sujetos que habían realizado un programa de acondicionamiento físico (GAFG, GAFGH y GAFGP) y los que no lo habían realizado (GC). No se observaron diferencias significativas entre los tres modelos de acondicionamiento físico propuestos en ninguna de las variables estudiadas. CONCLUSION Los tres programas han conseguido una buena efectividad sobre la condición física de mujeres mayores de 60 años. En referencia a la composición corporal, son pocos los efectos positivos encontrados salvo la retención de la masa muscular respecto al GC. En las variables sanguíneas se observó un buen grado de mejora sobre todo en el GAFGH. La sesión extra de fuerza realizada complementariamente a las dos sesiones de acondicionamiento físico general ha tenido una ligera influencia en la condición física, composición corporal y variables hematológicas de los sujetos del grupo GAFGH, que, aunque no se han observado diferencias con el GAFG si obtuvieron mejoras más importantes y más prolongadas durante el periodo de desentrenamiento. En el caso del grupo GAFGP, se ha observado poca o ninguna influencia con respecto al grupo GAFG (sólo se observan mejoras en CMJ). BIBLIOGRAFIA 1. American College of Sports Medicine [ACSM] (2014a). “ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription” Philadelphia, PA: Lipincott Williams & Wilkins. (9na. ed., pp. 19-36, 40-57, 162-180). 2. Andreoli, A., Celi, M., Volpe, S.L., Sorge, R., Taranttion, U. (2011) “Long-term effect of exercise on bone mineral density and body composition in post-menopausal ex-elite athletes: a retrospective study”. Eur J Clin Nutr.;65(6):104. 3. Aparicio, V.A.; Carbonell, A. y Delgado, M. (2010). “Beneficios de la actividad física en personas mayores”. Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte. vol. 10 (40) pp. 556-576. 4. Aranceta J, Pérez Rodrigo C, Muñoz M. (2004). “Perfil nutricional de los ancianos institucionalizados en España” En: Muñoz M, Aranceta J, Guijarro JL (eds). Libro blanco de la alimentación del anciano en España. Madrid: Panamericana. 5. Aronne L., Brown W., Keenan K. (2007) “Cardiovascular disease in obesity: A review of related risk factors and risk-reduction strategies”. J Clin Lipidol; 1. 6. Arterburn, D., Crane, P., Sullivan, S. (2004) “The coming epidemic of obesity in elderly Americans”. J Am Geriatr Soc; 52: 1907– 1912. 7. Assumpçào, C., Prestes, J., Leite, R., Urtado, C., Neto, J., Montebelo, M.I., Borin, S., Leite, G., Pellegrinotti, I. (2009). “Home-based strength training increase electromyographic activity and power in elderly”. Brazilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 3, n. 3, p. 231-249. 8. Avin, K., Frey, L. (2011) “Age-related differences in muscle fatigue vary by contraction type: a meta-analysis” Physical Therapy; 91:1153-1165. 9. Barauce, P.C., Pereira, G., Ugrinowitsch, C., Rodacki, A. (2012). “The effects of a water-based exercise program on strength and functionality of older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 20, 469-1. 10. Bello, M., Sousa, M., Neto, G., Oliveira, L., Guerras, I., Mendes, R., Sousa, N. (2014). “The effect of a long-term, community-based exercise program on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes”. Journal of Human Kinetics. Volume 43/2014, 43-38. 11. Bernis, C. (2007) “Gender, reproductive ageing, adiposity, fat distribution and cardiovascular risk factors in spanish women aged 45-65”. The Anthropologist: 241-249. 12. Bernis, C. (2012) “Ciclo vital, envejecimiento y salud mental”. En Edad, género y derechos, envejecer en femenino, editado por Pilar Folguera, Yolanda Guerrero, Rosario López, Pilar Montero. Ed UAM en prensa. 13. Bocalini, D., Serra, A., Rica, R., dos Santos, L. (2010). “Repercussions of training and detraining by water-based exercise on functional fitness and quality of life: a short-term follow-up in healthy older women” Clinical Science; 65(12): 1305-1309. 14. Bohannon, R. (2008). “Hand-grip dynamometry predicts future outcomes in aging adults”. J Geriatr Phys Ther.;31:3-10. 15. Bombí, I. (2012). “Cambios comportamentales y psicológicos” [en línea]. Fundación Mapfre; Fecha de consulta: 9 de Abril de 2014. Disponible en http://www. mapfre.com/salud/es/cinformativo/cambios-corporales-psicologicos-menopausia.shtml 16. Bopp, M., Ananian, Ch., Campbell, M. (2014) “Differences in active commuting among younger and older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22, 199-211. 17. Borrell, C., Artazcoz, L. (2008) “Las desigualdades de género en salud: retos para el futuro”. Rev Esp Salud Publica; 82: 241-9. 9. 18. Bouchard, J., Villeda, S.A. (2015) “Aging and brain rejuvenation as systemic events”. J Neurochem; 132:5-19. 19. Boxer, R., Kleppinger, A., Ahmad, A., Annis, K., Hager, W., Kenny, A. (2010) “The 6-minute walk is associated with frailty and predicts mortality in older adults with heart failure”. Congest Heart Failure; 16(5): 208-213. 20. Bressel E., Wing J., Miller A., Dolny D. (2014). “High intensity interval training on an aquatic treadmill in adults with osteoarthritis: effect on pain, balance, function, and mobility”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 28, Number 8, August 21. Cadmus Bertram, L., Stefanick, M., Saquib, N., Natarajan, L., Patterson, R., Bardwell, W., Flatt, S., Newman, V., Rock, C., Thomson, C., Pierce, P. (2011). “Physical activity, additional breast cancer events, and mortality among early-stage breast cancer survivors: findings from the WHEL Study”. Cancer Causes Control. Mar; 22(3): 427–435. 22. Cadore, E., Izquierdo, M. (2013). “How to simultaneously optimize muscle strength, power, functional capacity, and cardiovascular gains in the elderly: an update”. Journal of the American Aging Association, December; 35(6):2329-44. 23. Cadore, E., Izquierdo, M. (2013). “New strategies for the concurrent strength-, power-, and endurance-training prescription in elderly individuals”. Letter to the editor. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, xxx (1-2). 24. Cadore, E., Izquierdo, M., Dos Santos, M., Martins, J., Lhullier, F., Pinto, R., Silva, R., Kruel, L. (2012). “Hormonal responses to concurrent strength and endurance training with different exercise orders”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 26, Number 12, December. 25. Cadore, E., Lhullier, F., Alberton, C., Almeida, A., Sapata, K., Korzenowski, A., Kruel, L. (2009). “Salivary hormonal responses to different water-based exercise protocols in young and elderly men”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 23 Number 9 December 26. Cadore, E., Pinto, R., Pinto, S., Alberton, C., Correa, C., Tartaruga, M., Silva, E., Almeida, A., Trindade, G., Kruel, L. (2011). “Effects of strength, endurance, and concurrent training on aerobic power and dynamic neuromuscular economy in elderly men”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. March Volume 25, Number 3. 27. Cadore, E.L., Rodríguez-Mañas, L., Sinclair, A., Izquierdo, M. (2013b). “Effects of different exercise interventions on risk of falls, gait ability, and balance in physically frail older adults: a systematic review”. Rejuvenation Res, 16(2),105-114. 28. Carrasco, M., Vaquero, M. (2011). “Training in a shallow pool: Effect of upper body strength” International SportMed Journal, Vol.12; No.1, pp.17-29. 29. Carbonell, A. (1994). “Factores clínico-etiológicos en el origen de las caídas. En Osteoporosis y caídas en el anciano (pp.15-35). Barcelona: Fahoemo. 30. Carvalho, J., Marques, E., Ascensâo, A., Magalhâes, J. (2010). “Multicomponent exercise program improves blood lipid profile and antioxidant capacity in older women”. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 51 1-5. 31. CDC (1993) “Consensus Development Conference: diagnosis, prophylaxis and treatment of osteoporosis” Am J Med.;94:646-50. 32. CDC. 2009. “QuickStats: Percentage of Adults Aged =18 Years Who Engaged in Leisure-Time Strengthening Activities, by Age Group and Sex National Health Interview Survey, United States, 2008”. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 33. Chin, A., Paw, M., Van Uffelen, J., Riphagen, I., Van Mechelen, W. (2008) “The functional effects of a physical exercise training in frail older people: a systematic review”. Sports Med, 38(9), 781-793. 34. Chodzko-Zajko, W., Proctor, D., Fiatarone, M., Minson, C., Nigg, C., Salem, G., Skinner, J. (2009). “Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Position stand”. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 1510-1530 (Special communication). 35. Clark, D., Patten, C., Reid, K., Carabello, R., Phillips, E. Fielding, R. (2010). “Impaired Voluntary Neuromuscular Activation Limits Muscle Power in Mobility-Limited Older Adults” J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 65A (5): 495-502. 36. Coin, A., Sergi, G., Minicuci, N., Giannini, S., Barbiero, E., Manzato, E., Pedrazzoni, M., Minisola, S., Rossini, M., Del Puente, A., Zamboni, M., Inelmen, E., Enzi, G. (2008). “Fat-free mass and fat mass reference values by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) in a 20-80 year old Italian population”. Clinical nutrition (Edinburg, Scotland), 27(1), 87-94. 37. Cox, C., Mussolino, M., Rothwell, M., Lane, M., Golden, C., Madans, J., Feldman J., (1997). “Plan and Operation of the NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow up Study, 1992” U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Health Statistics Hyattsville, Maryland December 1997 DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 98-1311. 38. Crespo, J.J. (2010). “Influencia de un programa de ejercicio físico combinado y supervisado sobre la capacidad funcional y la calidad de vida de mujeres mayores activas”. Tesis Doctoral. Oviedo. 39. Cruz-Jentoft, A., Baeyens, J., Bauer, J., Boirie, Y., Cederholm, T., Landi, F., Martin, F., Michel, J., Rolland, Y., Schneider, S., Topinkova, E., Vandewoude, M., Zamboni, M. (2010) “Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis: report of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People”. Age Ageing; 39: 412–23. 40. Csapo, R., Gormasz, C., Baron, R. (2009). “Functional performance in comunity-dwelling and institutionalized elderly women”. Wien Klin Wochenschr; 121:383-90. 41. Da Costa Pereira, A. (2013). “Strength training and detraining in older women ACE I/D and ACTN3 R/X polymorphisms and muscle function”. Academic dissertation. Vila Real, Portugal. 42. Daly, M., Vidt, M., Eggebeen, J., Simpson, W., Miller, M., Marsh, A., Saul, K. (2013). “Upper extremity muscle volumes and functional strength after resistance training in older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 21, 186-207. 43. Daniels, R., Van Rossum, E., De Witte, L., Kempen, G., Van Den Heuvel, W. (2008). “Interventions to prevent disability in frail community-dwelling elderly: a systematic review”. BMC Health Serv Res, 30(8), 278. 44. De Villarreal, E. (2010). “Efecto del entrenamiento pliométrico en tres grupos de mujeres adultas”. Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte Vol. 10 (39) pp. 393-409. 45. Del Pozo-Cruz, J., Magaña, M., Ballesteros, M., Porras, M., Rodríguez, E., Navas, P., López-Lluch, G. (2013). “Influencia de la capacidad funcional sobre el perfil lipídico, daño muscular y perfil bioquímico en personas mayores no institucionalizadas” Rev Andal Med Deporte. 2013; 6(2):57-65. 46. Del Valle Soto, M. (2010). “Influencia de un programa de ejercicio físico combinado y supervisado sobre la capacidad funcional y la calidad de vida de mujeres mayores activas”. Tesis Doctoral. Oviedo. 47. Delmonico, M., Harris, T., Visser, M., Park, S., Conroy, M., Velasquez-Mieyer, P., Boudreau, R., Manini, T., Nevitt, M., Newman, A., Goodpaster, B. (2009) “Longitudinal study of muscle strength, quality, and adipose tissue infiltration”. Am J Clin Nutr. Dec;90(6):1579-85. 48. Delshad, M., Ghanbarian, A., Mehrabi, Y., Sarvghadi, F., Ebrahim, K. (2013). “Effect of strength training and short-term detraining on muscle mass in women aged over 50 years old”. Int. J. Prev. Med. Dec; 4 (12): 1386-94. 49. Diaz-Ureña, G., Carrasco, M., Barriga, A., Jiménez, F., Navarro, F. (2010). “Effects of two aquatic physical activity programs with different impact, on stifness index and physical activity level in postmenopausal and osteopenic women from Toledo”. International Journal of Sport Science Volumen 6, No. 20, pp. 196-204, Julio. 50. Dos Santos E., Asano R., Filho I., Lopes N., Panelli P., Nascimento D., Collier S., Prestes J. (2014) “Acute and Chronic cardiovascular response to 16 weeks of combined eccentric or traditional resistance and aerobic training in elderly hypertensive women: A randomized controlled trial”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 28, Number 11, November. 51. Doteval, A., Johansson, S., Wilhelmsen, L., Rosengren, A., (2004) “Increased levels of triglycerides, BMI and blood pressure and low physical activity increase the risk of diabetes in Swedish women. A prospective 18-year follow-up of the BEDA study”. Diabetic Medicine 21 (6), 615-622. 52. Dutta, Ch. (1997). “Symposium Sarcopenia: diagnosis and mechanisms. Significance of sarcopenia in the elderly”. J Nutr.; 127: 992-993. 53. Eurostat Statitics Database (2012). 54. Farinatti, P., Geraldes, A., Bottaro, M., Lima, M., Alburquerque, R., Fleck, S. (2013). “Effects of different resistance training frequencies on the muscle strength and functional performance of active women older than 60 years”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 27, Number 8, August. 55. Fielding, R., Vellas, B., Evans, W., Bhasin, S., Morley, J., Newman, A., Abellan van Kan, G., Andrieu, S., Bauer, J., Breuille, D., Cederholm, T., Chandler, J., De Meynard, C., Donini, L., Harris, T., Kannt, A., Keime Guibert, F., Onder, G., Papanicolaou, D., Rolland, Y., Rooks, D., Sieber, C., Souhami, E., Verlaan, S., Zamboni, M. (2011) “Sarcopenia: an undiagnosed condition in older adults. Current consensus definition: prevalence, etiology, and consequences. International working group on sarcopenia”. J Am Med Dir Assoc. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Government]. 2011;12(4):249–56. 56. Fleg, J., Morrell, C., Bos, A., Brant, L., Talbot, L., Wright, J., Lakata, E. (2005). “Accelerated longitudinal decline of aerobic capacity in healthy older adults”. Circulation. 2005; 112:674-82. 57. Forte, R., Boreham, C., Costaleite, J., Ditroilo, M., Rodrigues-Krause, J., Brennan, L., Gibney, E., De Vito, G. (2013). “Functional and muscular gains in older adults: multicomponent vs resistance exercise”. Journal of Aging Research & Clinical Practice. Volume 2, Number 2. 58. Fragala, M., Fukuda, D., Stout, J., Townsend, J., Emerson, N., Boone, C., Beyer, K., Oliveira, L., Hoffman, J. (2014). “Muscle quality index improves with resistance exercise training in older adults”. Experimental Gerontology 53 1-6. 59. Gagnon, A., Smith, K., Tremblay, M., Vezina, H., Pare, P., Desjardins, B. (2009) “Is there a trade-off between fertility and longevity? A comparative study of women from three large historical databases accounting for mortality selection”. Am. J Hum Biol, 21:533–540. 60. Gale, C., Martyn, C., Cooper, C., Sayer, A. (2007). “Grip strength, body composition, and mortality”. Int J Epidemiol.;36:228-35. 61. Gennuso, K., Gangnon, R., Matthews, Ch., Thraen-Borowski, K., Colbert, L. (2013). “Sedentary behavior, physical activity, and markers of health in older adults”, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 45, No. 8, pp. 1493-1500. 62. Gillespie, L., Robertson, M., Gillespie, W., Sherrington, C., Clemson, L., Lamb, S. (2012). “Interventions for preventing falls in older people living in the community”. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 9: CD007146. 63. Gómez-Cabello A., Vicente Rodríguez G., Vila-Maldonado S., Casajús J. A., Ara I. (2012a) “Envejecimiento y composición corporal: la obesidad sarcopénica en España”. Nutr. Hosp. Feb; 27(1): 22-30. 64. Gómez-Cabello, A., Ara, I., González-Agüero, A., Casajús, J.A., Vicente-Rodríguez, G. (2012b) “Effects of training on bone mass in older adults”. Sports Medicine. April, 1;42(4):301-325. 65. Gómez-Cabello, A., Pedrero-Chamizo, R., Albers, U., González-Gross, M., Casajús, J.A., Ara, I. (2011). “Prevalence of overweight and obesity in non-institutionalized people aged 65 or over from Spain: The Elderly EXERNET Multi-center Study”. Obesity Reviews;12(8):583-92. 66. González-Ravé, J.M., Delgado, M., Vaquero, M., Juárez, D., Newton, R. (2011). “Changes in vertical jump height, anthropometric characteristics, and biochemical parameters after contrast training in master athletes and physically active older people”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 25, Number 7, July. 67. Goodpaster, B., Carlson, C., Visser, M., Kelley, D., Scherzinger, A., Harris, T., Stamm, E., Newman, A. (2001) “Attenuation of skeletal muscle and strength in the elderly: The Health ABC Study”. J Appl Physiol; 90: 2157–2165. 29. 68. Goodpaster, B., Chomentowski, P., Ward, B., Rossi, A., Glynn, N., Delmonico, M., Kritchevsky, S., Pahor, M., Newman, A. (2008). “Effects of physical activity on strength and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults: a randomized controlled trial” J Appl Physiol 105:1498-1503. 69. Gouveia, E., Maia, J., Beunen, G., Blimkie, C., Fena, E., Freitas, D. (2013) “Functional fitness and physical activity of portuguese community-residing older adults”. JAPA, 2013, 21, 1-19. 70. Graef, F., Pinto, R., Alberton, C., De Lima, W., Kruel, L. (2010). “The effects of resistance training performed in water on muscle strength in the elderly”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. November, Volume 24, Number 11. 71. Gudlaugsson, J., Gudnason, V., Aspelund, T., Siggeirsdottir, K., Olafsdottir, A., Jonsson, P., Arngrimsson, S., Harris, T., Johannsson, E. (2012). “Effects of a 6-month multimodal training intervention on retention of functional fitness in older adults: a randomized-controlled cross-over design” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9:107. 72. Gurjào, A., Gonçalves, R., De Moura, R., Gobbi, S. (2009). “Acute effect of static stretching on rate of force development and maximal voluntary contraction in older women”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volumen 23 Number 7 October. 73. Gusi, N., Prieto, J., Olivares, P., Delgado, S., Quesada, F., Cebrián, C. (2012). “Normative fitness performance scores of commnunity-dwelling older adults in Spain”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 20, 106-126. 74. Gutiérrez-Fisac, J., López, E., Banegas, J., Graciani, A., Rodríguez-Artalejo, F. (2004) “Prevalence of overweight and obesity in elderly people in Spain”. Obes Res; 12: 710-5. 75. Hakkinen, A., Kukka, A., Onatsu, T., Järvenpää, S., Heinonen, A., Kyröläinen, H., Tomas-Carus, P., Kallinen, M. (2009). “Health-related quality of life and physical activity in persons at high risk for type 2 diabetes”. Disabil Rehabil: 31:10; 799-805. 76. Hall, K., Morey, M., Dutta, C., Manini, T., Weltman, A., Nelson, M., Morgan, A., Senior, J., Seyffarth, C., Buchner, D. (2014) “Activity-Related Energy Expenditure in Older Adults: A Call for More Research”. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 46, No. 12, pp. 2335–2340, 2014. 77. Hallage, T., Krause, M., Haile, L., Miculis, C., Nagle, E., Reis, R., Da Silva, S. (2010). “The effecs of 12 weeks of steps aerobics training on functional fitness of elderly women”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. August 2010, Volume 24, Number 8. 78. Hankinson, A., Daviglus, M., Bouchard, C., Carnethon, M., Lewis, C., Schreiner, P., Liu, K., Sidney, S. (2010). “Maintaining a high physical activity level over 20 years and weight gain”. JAMA. 2010;304(23):2603–10. 79. Hanna, J. (2015). “Sarcopenia and critical illness: a deadly combination in the elderly”. JPEN 2015; Jan 15. pii:0148607114567710 80. Hanson, E., Srivatsan, S., Agrawal, S., Menon, K., Delmonico, M., Wang, M., Hurley, B. (2009). “Effects of strength training on physical function: Influence of power, strength, and body composition”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. December 2009, Volume 23, Number 9. 81. Hinkula, M., Kauppila, A., Nayha, S., Pukkala, E. (2006) “Cause-specific mortality of grand multiparous women in Finland”. Am J Epidemiol 163: 367–373. 82. Holsgaard-Larsen, A., Caserotti, P., Puggaard, L., Aagaard, P. (2011). “Stair-ascent performance in elderly women: effect of explosive strength training”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 19, 117-136. 83. Howe, T., Rochester, L., Jackson, A., Banks, P., Blair V. (2007). “Exercise for improving balance in older people”. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD004963. 84. Howe, T., Shea, B., Dawson, L., Downie, F., Murray, A., Ross, C., Harbour, R., Caldwell, L., Creed, G. (2011). “Exercise for preventing and treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women” The Cochrane Library, Issue 7. 85. Hsia, J., Langer, R., Manson, J., Kuller, L., Johnson, K., Hendrix, S., Pettinger, M., Heckbert, S., Greep, N., Crawford, S., Eaton, C., Kostis, J., Caralis, P., Prentice, R. (2006) “Conjugated equine estrogens and coronary heart disease: the Women’s Health Initiative”. Arch Intern Med;166(3):357–65. 86. Hubert, H., Feinleib, M., McNamara, P. (1983) “Obesity as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: A 26-years follow up of participants in the Framingham Heart Study”. Circulation 1983; 67: 968-77. 87. Hunter, G., Bickel, C., Fisher, G., Neumeier, W., McCarthy, J. (2013). “Combined aerobic and Strength training and energy expenditure in older women”. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2013, Vol. 45, No. 7, pp. 1386-1393. 88. INE (2012) Encuesta nacional de salud de España, 2012. Notas de prensa (publicado el 14 de marzo del 2012). 89. Jasienska, G. (2009) “Reproduction and lifespan: trade-offs, overall energy budgets, intergenerational costs and costs neglected by research”. Am. J Hum Biol 21:254-532. 90. Johnson, J., Slentz, C., Houmard, J., Samsa, G., Duscha, B., Aiken, L., McCartney, J., Tanner, Ch., Kraus, W. (2007). “Exercise training amount and intensity effects on metabolic syndrome (from studies of a targeted risk reduction intervention through defined exercise)”. Am J Cardiol. 2007 December 15; 100 (12): 1759-1766. 91. Kahle, N., Tevald, M. (2014). “Core muscle strengthening´s improvement of balance performance in community-dwelling older adults: a pilot study”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22, 65-73. 92. Kalapotharakos, V., Diamantopoulos, K., Tokmakidis, S. (2010). “Effects of resistance training and detraining on muscle strength and functional performance of older adults aged 80 to 88 years”. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. Vol. 22, No. 2. 93. Kamel, H. (2003) “Sarcopenia and aging”. Nutr Rev.; 61:157-67. 94. Kang, S., Hwang, S., Klein, A., Hum Kim, S. (2015). “Multicomponent exercise for physical fitness of community-dwelling elderly women”. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 27: 911-915. 95. Kannel, W., Wilson, P. (1995) “Risk factors that attenuate the female coronary disease advantage”. Arch Intern Med 155: 57–61. 96. Karinkanta, S., Heinonen, A., Sievänen, H., Uusi-Rasi, K., Fogelholm, M., Kannus, P. (2009). “Maintenance of exercise-induced benefits in physical functioning and bone among elderly women”. Osteoporos Int 20:665-674. 97. Katzmarzyk, P., Reeder, B., Elliott, S., Joffres, M., Pahwa, P., Raine, K., Kirkland, S., Paradis, G. (2012). “Body mass index and risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer and all-cause mortality”. Canadian Journal of Public Health; 103:147-151. 98. Krause, M., Januário, R., Hallage, T., Haile, L., Miculis, C., Gama, M., Goss, F., da Silva, S. (2009). “A comparison of functional fitness of older Brazilian and american women”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 17, 387-397. 99. Larsson, H., Ahrén, B. (1996) “Androgen activity as a risk factor for impaired glucose tolerance in postmenopausal women”. Diabetes Care; 19: 1399-403. 100. Lawlor, D., Emberson, J., Ebrahim, S., Whincup, P., Wannamethee, S., Walker, M., Smith G. (2003) “Is the association between parity and coronary heart disease due tobiological effects of pregnancy or adverse lifestyle risk factors associated with childrearing?”—Findings from the British Women’s Heart and Health Study and the British Regional Heart Study. Circulation 107:1260–1264. 101. Lee, S., Islam, M., Rogers, M., Kusunoki, M., Okada, A., Takeshima, N. (2011). “Effects of hydraulic-resistance exercise on strength and power in untrained healthy older adults”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 25, Number 4, April 2011. 102. Leite, J., Forte, R., Devitto, G., Borcham, C., Gibney, M., Brennan, L., Gibney, R. (2012). “Effects of multicomponente exercise on blood lipids in the elderly”. Proccedings of the Nutrition Society 71 (OCE2), E69. 103. Lenk, K., Schuler, G., Adams, V. (2010). “Skeletal muscle wasting in cachexia and sarcopenia: molecular pathophysiology and impact of exercise training”. Journal of Cachexia and Sarcopenia Muscle 1:9-21. 104. León-Muñoz, L., Martínez-Gómez, D., Balboa-Castillo, T., López-García, E., Guallar-Castillón, P., Rodríguez-Artalejo, F. (2013). “Continued sedentariness, change in sitting time, and mortality in older adults”. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 45, No. 8, pp. 1501-1507. 105. Leszczak, T., Olson, J., Stafford, J., Di Brezzo, R. (2013). “Early adaptations to eccentric and high-velocity training on strength and functional performance in community-dwelling older adults”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 27, Number 2, February 2013. 106. Liu, C.J., Latham, N.K. “Progressive resistance strength training for improving physical function in older adults (review)” (2009). The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. 107. López-Otín, C., Blasco, M.A., Partridge, L., Serrano, M., Kroemer, G. (2013). “The hallmarks of ageing”. Cell; 153:1194-1217. 108. Lovejoy, J. (2003) “The menopause and obesity”. Prim Care Clin Office Pract; 30: 317-25. 109. Lovell, D., Cuneo, R., Gass, G. (2010). “The effect of strength and short-term detraining on maximum force and the rate of force development of older men”. European Journal Applied Physiology 109;429-435. 110. Lubans, D., Mundey, Ch., Lubans, N., Lonsdale, Ch. (2013). “Pilot randomized controlled trial: Elastic-Resistance-Training and lifestyle-activity intervention for sedentary older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 21, 20-32. 111. Luhrmann, P., Edelmann-Schafer, B., Neuhauser-Berthold, M. (2010) “Changes in resting metabolic rate in an elderly German population: Cross-sectional and longitudinal data”. The journal of nutrition, health & aging, 14 (3), 232-236. 112. Marcell, T., Hawkins, S., Wiswell, R. (2014). “Leg strength declines with advancing age despite habitual endurance exercise in active older adults”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 28, Number 2, February 2014. 113. Marqués, E., Baptista, F., Santos, R., Vale, S., Santos, D., Silva, A., Mota, J., Sardinha, L. (2014). “Normative functional fitness standards and trends of portuguese older adults: cross-cultural comparisons”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22, 126-137. 114. Marquess, J. (2008). “The elderly and diabetes: an age trend and an epidemic converging”. Consult Pharm, 23 Suppl B:5-11. 115. Marsh, A., Miller, M., Rejeski, Hutton, S., Kritchevsky, S. (2009). “Lower extremity muscle function after strength or power training in older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 17, 416-443. 116. Martínez Navarro, I. (2014). “Efectos de un programa de entrenamiento functional sobre la variabilidad de la frecuencia cardíaca, la función ejecutiva y la capacidad condicional en adultos mayores”. Tesis doctoral. Valencia, 2014. 117. Martins, R., Veríssimo, M., Coelho e Silva, M., Cumming, S., Teixeira, A. (2010). “Effects of aerobic and strength-based training on metabolic health indicators in older adults”. Lipids in Health and Disease, 9:76. 118. Mason, C., Xiao, L., Imayama, I., Duggan, C., Foster-Schubert, K., Kong, A., Campbell, K., Wang, C., Villasenor, A., Neuhouser, M., Alfano, C., Blackburn, G., Mctiernann, A. (2013). “Influence of diet, exercise, and serum vitamin D on sarcopenia in postmenopausal women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 45, No. 4, pp. 607-614. 119. Matthews, C., Chen, K., Freedson, P., Buchowski, M., Beech, B., Pate, R., Troiano, R. (2008). “Amount of time spent in sedentary behaviors in the United States, 2003–2004”. Am J Epidemol.;167(7) :875–81. 120. McDermott, A., y Mernitz, H. “Exercise and older patients: prescribing guidelines,” (2006). American Family Physician, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 437–444. 121. Melchionda, N., Enzi, G., Caviezel, F., Cairella, M., Contaldo, F., Gatto, M., Babini, A., Parenti, M., Pasquali, R., Grassi, M., Crepaldi, G. (1990) “Epidemiology of obesity in the elderly: CNR multicenter study in Italy”. Diabetes Res CLIN Pract 1990; 10 (Supl. 1): S11-6. 122. Mendes de Leon, C., Glass, T., Berkman, L. (2003) “Social Engagement and Disability in a Community Population of Older Adults: The New Haven EPESE”. Am J Epidemiol; 157: 633-42. 03. 123. Metter, E., Talbot, L., Schrager, M., y Conwit, R. (2002). “Skeletal muscle strength as a predictor of all-cause mortality in healthy men”. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 57(10), 359-365. 124. Milewicz, A., Tworowska, U., Demissie, M. (2001) “Menopausal obesity -myth or fact?” Climateric; 4: 273-83. 125. Millán- Calenti, J.M., Sánchez, A., Lorenzo-López, L., Maseda, A. (2012) “Laboratory values in a Spanish population of older adults: A comparison with reference values from younger adults”. Maturitas 71: 396–401. 126. Misic, M., Valentine, R., Rosengren, K., Woods, J., Evans, E. (2009). “Impact of training modality on strength and physical function in older adults”. Gerontology; 55:411-416. 127. Moayyeri, A. (2008). “The association byween physical activity and osteoporotic fractures: a review of the evidence and implications for future research”. Ann Epidemiol, 18(11):827-835. 128. Mokdad, A., Serdula, M., Dietz, W., Bowman, B., Marks, J., Koplan, J. (1999) “The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998”. JAMA; 282: 1519-22. 129. Mujika I, Padilla S. (2000). “Detraining: loss of training-induced physiological and performance adaptations. Part I: short term insufficient training stimulus”. Sports Med ;30(2):79-87. 130. Nelson, M., Rejeski, W., Blair, S., Duncan, P., Judge, J., King, A., Macera, C., Castaneda-Sceppa, C. (2007). “Physical Activity and Public Health in Older Adults: Recommendation from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association”. Med Sci Sports Exerc.;39(8):1435-1445. 131. Newman, A., Kupelian, V., Visser, M., Simonsick, E., Goodpaster, B., Kritchevsky, S., Tyalavsky, F., Rubin, S., Harris, T. (2006). “Strength, but not muscle mass, is associated with mortality in the health, aging and body composition study cohort”. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences; 61A: 72-77. 132. Nuworsoo, C., Cooper, E., Cushing, K., Jud, E. (2012). Integration of bicycling and walking facilities into the infrastructure of urban communities. San Jose, CA: Mineta Transportation Institute. 133. Oliveira, R., Bottaro, M., Mota, A., Pitanga, F., Guido, M., Leite, T., Bezerra, L., Lima, R. (2009). “Association between sarcopenia-related phenotypes and aerobic capacity indexes of older women”. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine. 8, 337-343. 134. Orquín Castrillón, F.J. (2014). “Efectos de una prescripción del entrenamiento con sobrecargas sobre la composición corporal, la producción de fuerza, la autonomía funcional y el VO2 máx. en adultos mayores de 65 años”. Tesis Doctoral. Murcia, Junio 2014. 135. Park, H., Muto, Y. y Park, S. (2002). “Improvement of risk factors for hip fracture by exercise intervention in elderly women”. Clin Calcium, 12(4):509-512. 136. Park, J.-H., Park, H., Lim, S., Park, J.-K. (2015). “Effects of a 12 week healthy life exercise program on oxidized low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and carotid intima-media thickness in obese elderly women”. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 27: 1435-1439. 137. Peláez Rosa Burgos. (2006). “Sarcopenia en ancianos”. Endocrinol Nutr. 53, (5): p 335-344. 138. Pereira, A., Izquierdo, M., Silva, A., Costa, A., González-Badillo, J.J., Marqués, M. (2012). “Muscle performance and functional capacity retention in older women after high-speed power training cessation”. Experimental Gerontology, August 2012, Volume 47, Issue 8, pp 620-624. 139. Peterson, M., Rhea, M., Sen, A., Gordon, P. (2010). “Resistance exercise for muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysis”. Ageing Res Rev. July; 9(3): 226-237. 140. Peterson, M., Sen, A., Gordon, P. (2011). “Influence of resistance exercise on lean body mass in aging adults: a meta-analysis”. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 249-258, 141. Phillips, S. (2007). “Resistance exercise: good for more than just Grandma and Grandpa’s muscles”. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Dec 32(6): 1198–1205. 142. Pimenta, E., Oparil, S. (2012). “Management of hypertension in the elderly”. Nature Reviews Cardiology 9, 286-296. 143. Pi-Sunyer, X. (2009) “The medical risks of obesity”. Postgrad Med.; 121:21-33. 144. Pizzigalli, L., Filippini, A., Ahmaidi, S., Jullien, H., Rainoldi, A. (2011). “Prevention of falling risk in elderly people: The relevance of muscular strength and symmetry of lower limbs in postural stability”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. February 2011, Volume 25, Number 2. 145. Poyatos, M., Vaquero, M. (2011). ”Training in a shallow pool: Its effect on upper extremity strength and total body weight in postmenopausal women”. International SportMed Journal, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 17-29. 146. Rabelo, H., Bezerra, L., Terra, D., Lima, R., Silva, M., Leite, T., De Oliveira, R. (2011). “Effects of 24 weeks of progressive resistance training on knee extensors peak torque and fat-free mass in older women” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 25, Number 8, August. 147. Raj, I., Bird, S., Shield, A. (2010). “Aging and the force-velocity relationship of muscles”. Experimental Gerontology 45 81-90. 148. Raj, I., Bird, S., Westfold, B., Shield, A. (2012). “Effects of eccentrically biased versus conventional weight training in older adults” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 44, No. 6, pp. 1167-1176. 149. Rappelli, A. (2000) “Hypertension and obesity after the menopause”. J Hypertens; 20 (Supl. 2): S26-8. 150. Rikli, R. & Jones, J. (1999a). “Development and validation of a functional fitness test for community-residing older adults.” Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 7, 129-161. 151. Rikli, R. & Jones J. (1999b). “Functional fitness normative scores for community-residing older adults, ages 60-94.” Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 7, 162-181. 152. Río de la Loza, M., De Córdova, L. (2010) “Esteroides sexuales y metabolismo mineral óseo” Ortho-tips. Vol. 6 No. 1. 153. Rose, A., Hennis, A., Hambleton, I. (2008) “Sex and the city: differences in diseaseand disability-free life years, and active community participation of elderly men and women in 7 cities in Latin America and the Caribbean”. BMC Public Health; 8: 127. 11. 154. Ryan, A. (2000) “Insulin resistance with aging: effects of diy and exercise”. Sports Med. 30(5):327-346. 155. Samaras, K., Spector, T., Nguyen, T. (1997) “Independent factors determine the amount and distribution of fat in women after the menopause”. J Clin Endocrinol Metab; 82: 781-5. 156. Santanasto, A., Glynn, N., Newman, M., Taylor, C., Brooks, M., Goodpaster, B., Newman, A. (2011). “Impact of Weight Loss on Physical Function with Changes in Strength, Muscle Mass, and Muscle Fat Infiltration in Overweight to Moderately Obese Older Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial”. Hindawi Publishing Corporation. Journal of Obesity. Volume 2011, Article ID 516576, 10 pages. 157. Sayer, A., Robinson, S., Patel, H., Shavlakadze, T., Cooper, C., Grounds, M. (2013). “New horizons in the pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of sarcopenia” Age and Ageing; 00: 1–6. 158. Sayers, S., Gibson, K. (2014). “High-speed power training in older adults: A shift of the external resistance at which peak power is produced” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 28, Number 3, March 2014. 159. Seco, J., Abecia, L., Echevarría, E., Barbero, I., Torres-Unda, J., Rodríguez, V., Calvo, J. (2012). “A long term physical activity training program increases strength and flexibility, and improves balance in older adults”. Rehabilitation Nursing, 38, 37–47. 160. Seidell, J. (2002) “Prevalence and time trends of obesity in Europe”. J Endocrinol Invest 2002; 26: 816–822. 161. Shimada, H., Kimura, Y., Lord, S.R., Oda, K., Ishii K., Suzuki, T., Ishiwata, K. (2009). “Comparison of regional lower limb glucose metabolism in older adults during walking”. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2009: 19: 389-397. 162. Simmons, D., Shaw, J., McKenzie, A., Eaton, S., Cameron, A.J., Zimmet, P. (2006) “Is grand multiparity associated with an increased risk of dysglycaemia?” Diabetologia 49:1522–1527. 163. Sims, S., Kubo, J., Desai, M., Bea, J., Beasley, J., Manson, J., Allison, M., Seguin, R., Chen, Z., Michael, Y., Sullivan, S., Beresford, S., Stefanick, M. (2013). “Changes in physical activity and body composition in postmenopausal women over time”. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 45, No. 8, pp. 1486–1492. 164. Sociedad Española para el estudio de la obesidad (SEEDO). (1996) “Consenso español 1995 para la evaluación de la obesidad y para la realización de estudios epidemiológicos”. Med Clin (Barc); 107:782-7. 165. Sousa, N., Mendes, R. (2013). “Effects of resistance versus multicomponente training on body composition and functional fitness in institutionalized elderly women”. Letters to the editor. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. October 2013-Vol. 61, no. 10. 166. Stevenson, J.C. (2011) “A woman’s journey through the reproductive, transitional and postmenopausal Periods of life: Impact on cardiovascular and musculo-skeletal risk and the role of estrogen replacement”. Maturitas 70 :197– 205 167. Sturnieks, D., George, R., Lord, S. (2008). “Balance disorders in the elderly”. Neurophysiologie Clinique, 38,467-478. 168. Swartz, A., Tarima, S., Miller, N., Hart, T., Grimm, E., Rote, A., Strath, S. (2012). “Prediction of body fat in older adults by time spent in sedentary behavior”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 20, 332-344. 169. Sweeney, C., Blair, C., Anderson, K., Lazovich, D., Folsom, A. (2004) “Risk factors for breast cancer in elderly women”. Am J Epidemiol; 160: 868-75. 170. Taguchi, N., Higaki, Y., Inoue, S., Kimura, H., y Tanaka, K. (2010). “Effects of a 12-Month Multicomponent Exercise Program on Physical Performance, Daily Physical Activity, and Quality of Life in Very Elderly People with Minor Disabilities: An Intervention Study”. J Epidemiol;20(1):21-29. 171. Theou, O., Stathokostas, L., Roland, K., Jakobi, J., Patterson, Ch., Vandervoort, A., Jones, G. (2011). “The effectiveness of exercise interventions for the management of frailty: A systematic review”. Journal of Aging Research. Volume 2011, Article ID 569194, 19 pages. 172. Thurston, R., Sutton-Tyrrell, K., Everson-Rose, S.A., Hess, R., Matthews, K.A. (2008) “Hot flashes and subclinical cardiovascular disease. Findings from the study of women’s health across the nation heart study”. Circulation; 118:1234–40. 173. Tokmakidis, S., Kalapotharakos, V., Smilios, I., Parlavantzas, A. (2009). “Effects of detraining on muscle strength and mass after high or moderate intensity of resistance training in older adults”. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging 29, pp. 316-319. 174. Tolomio, S., Ermolao, A., Lalli, A., Zaccaria, M. (2010). “The effect of a multicomponente dual-modality exercise program targeting osteoporosis on bone health status and physical function capacity of postmenopausal women”. J Women Aging; 22 (4): 241-54. 175. Tommaselli, G., Di Carlo, C., Pellicano, M., Nasti, A., Ferrara, C., Di Spiezio Sardo, A., Nola, B., Nappi, C. (2001) “Modificazioni dei livelli sierici di leptina in menopausa”. Minerva Ginecol; 53: 193-8. 176. Torresani, M., Oliva, M., Echevarría, C., Rossi, M., Maffei, L. (2007). “Perfi¬l antropométrico de mujeres perimenopáusicas”. Spanish Journal of Community Nutrition; 13 (1): 6-10. 177. Toth, M., Tchernof, A., Sites, C. (2000) “Effect of menopausal status on body composition and abdominal fat distribution”. Int J Obes; 24: 226-31. 178. Toto, P., Raina, K., Holm, M., Schlenk, E., Rubinstein, E., Rogers, J. (2012). “Outcomes of a multicomponente physical activity program for sedentary, community-dwelling older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 20, 363-378. 179. Van roie, E. (2014). “Counteracting sarcopenia and functional decline through resistance exercise”. Dissertation. Leuven. 180. Villareal, D., Smith, G., Sinacore, D., Shah, K., Mittendorfer, B. (2011). “Regular multi-component exercise increases physical fitness and muscle protein anabolism in frail, obese, older adults” Obesity (Silver spring). February; 19(2): 312-318. 181. Vitzthum, V. (2009) “The ecology and evolutionary endocrinology of reproduction in the human female”. Am J Phys Anthropol.;140 Suppl 49:95-136. 182. Walker S., Häkkinen K. (2014). “Similar increases in strength after short-term resistance training due to different neuromuscular adaptations in young and older men” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. Volume 28, Number 11, November 2014. 183. Wallerstein, L.F., Tricoli, V., Barroso, R., Rodacki, A., Russo, L., Aihara, A.Y., Correa, A., Tulio, M., Ugrinowitsch, C. (2012). “Effects of strength and power training on neuromuscular variables in older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 20, 171-185. 184. Wang, P., Hassager, C., Ravn, P., Wang, S., Christiansen, C. (2004) “Total and regional body-composition changes in early postmenopausal women: age related or menopausal related?” Am J Clin Nutr; 60: 843-8. 185. Wang, X., Hsu, F., Isom, S., Walkup, M., Kritchevsky, S., Goodpaster, B., Church, T., Pahor, M., Stafford, R., Nicklas, B. (2012). “Effects of a 12-month physical activity intervention on prevalence of metabolic syndrome in elderly men and women” Journal of Gerontology a Biol Sci Med Sci. April; 67A (4): 417-424. 186. Ward, Ch., Valentine, R., Evans, E. (2014). “Greater effect of adiposity than physical activity or lean mass on physical function in community-dwelling older adults”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22, 284-293. 187. Wassertheil-Smoller, S., Anderson, G., Psaty, B., Black, H., Manson, J., Wong, N. Francis, J., Grimm, R., Kotchen, T., Langer, R., Lasser, N. (2000) “Hypertension and its treatment in postmenopausal women: base-line data from the Women's Health Initiative”. Hypertension; 36: 780-9. 188. Watanabe, Y., Tanimoto, M., Ohgane, A., Sanada, K., Miyachi, M., Ishii, N. (2013). “Increased muscle size and strength from slow-movement, low-intensity resistance exercise and tonic force generation”. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 21, 71-84. 189. Wen, C., Wai, J., Tsai, M., Yang, Y., Cheng, T., Lee, M., Chang, H., Tsao, C., Tsai, S., Wu, X. (2011). “Minimum amount of physical activity for reduced mortality and extended life expectancy: a prospective cohort study”. The Lancet. Oct 01, Volume 378, Number 9798, p1197-1274. 190. Wilmore, J., Costill, D. (2004). “Fisiología del deporte y del ejercicio” Editorial Paidotribo. 191. Wilund, K., Feeney, L., Tomayko, E., Weiss, E., Hagberg, J. (2009). “Effects of endurance exercise training on markers of cholesterol absorption and synthesis”. Physiological Research, 58:545-552. 192. Wing, R., Matthews, A., Kuller, L., Meilahn, E., Plantinga, P. (1991) “Weight gain at the time of menopause”. Arch Intern Med; 151: 97-102 193. World Health Organisation/Organizacion Mundial de la Salud. (2002). “Envejecimiento activo: un marco político”. Rev Esp Geriatr Gerontol. 37:74-105. 194. Yoon, B., Kim, C., Lim, H., Kim, Y., Im, J. Paik, I., Jeon, J., Cho, H., Jeong, H., Jin, Y., Suh, S. (2009). “Association of physical performance and health-related factors among elderly Korean subjects”. International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 205-215. 195. Zamboni, M., Zoico, E., Scartezzini, T., Mazzali, G., Tosoni, P., Zivelonghi, A., Gallagher, D., De Pergola, G., Di Francesco, V., Bosello, O. (2003) “Body composition changes in stable-weight elderly subjects: the effect of sex”. Aging Clin Exp Res; 15: 321–327. 196. Zech, A., Drey, M., Freiberger, E., Hentschke, C., Bauer, J., Sieber, C., Pfeifer, K. (2012). “Residual effects of muscle strength and muscle power training and detraining on physical function in community-dwelling prefrail older adults: a randomized controlled trial”. Biomed Central Geriatrics, 12:68. 197. Zunzunegui, M., Alvarado, B., Béland, F., Vissandjee, B. (2009) “Explaining health differences between men and women in later life: a cross-city comparison in Latin America and the Caribbean”. Soc Sci Med; 68: 235-42. 8.